John the Baptist
We need to look at how this evidence effects our understanding of the person of John the Baptist and his mode of baptism. John is commonly credited with having introduced baptism as a rite of purification at the time of Jesus Christ, although any who knew contemporary Jewish rites would not make this claim.
John was not the first to use water purification for ritual or moral uncleanness. The Essenes or whoever were the occupants of Qumran, used immersion in water for ritual purposes. John was also baptising at the same time less than ten kilometres away at the point where the Jordan enters the Dead Sea.
It is most likely that John was simply using a current custom practised by the Essenes who also occupied the Wilderness of Judea. In fact it has been suggested that John was brought up in the Essene community, possibly at Qumran itself. This was possibly the closest Essene community to the place south of Jericho where John first practised baptism.
In his book, “The Dead Sea Scrolls”, John Allegro devotes a chapter to discussing this intriguing issue. He says: “To most people the association of the River Jordan, baptism, and the call to repentance brings to mind most vividly the figure of John the Baptist. Marked off from his youth for the ascetic life of a prophet, John remained in the deserts of Judaea until ‘the time of his showing unto Israel’. His wild, unkempt appearance, his uncompromising call to repentance, and his fanatical assurance of the nearness of the Day of Judgement, made a particular appeal to the people when he finally began his public ministry. He cared for no man and condemned hypocrisy and complacency wherever he found it, to the delight of the ordinary man who had suffered enough from both in the priesthood. There seems to have grown up around him a band of admirers who were later inclined to ascribe to him a messianic role, which, according to the Fourth Gospel, he was most anxious to deny. He was but a messenger, “the voice of one crying in the wilderness, Make straight the way of the Lord. (John 1:23; Isa 60:3).
John’s baptism was for the remission of sins, but that remission depended on a genuine showing of the fruits of repentance, after which alone could the suppliant be purified in the flesh with water. Even this was a preparatory ritual only, for the days were coming when the “Messiah himself would baptise, not with water, but with the Holy Spirit and with fire.” (Matt.3:11) Indeed, the eschatological process had already begun, “even now the axe is laid unto the root of the trees”, (Matt.3:10) and thoughts of personal wealth and prestige could be put aside for ever. Now was the time to share one’s worldly goods, to live honestly, and in quiet expectation of the end.
The Qumran Community quoted the same Isaiah passage to describe their own work of preparation, which was to study the Law and abide by the teachings of Moses and the prophets. They also demanded true repentance before baptism, and likewise promised a further cleansing by God through the Holy Spirit. As we know, the Sect believed in the approach of the Day of Visitation and that this period of preparation would not allow of the accumulation of personal wealth, and they practised communal ownership of property.
Yet for all the similarities in their respective teachings, John was clearly at this time not of the Qumran Community. His mixing with the common man and thus separation from the `Purity of the Many’ would make his continued membership of the Community impossible. Theirs was no evangelistic call to mankind, but an esoteric Community of the Elect.
Whilst others could join, it was only after a rigorous period of self-denial and probation. It does appear, however, that John may have belonged to the Essene movement, and correspondences with Qumran doctrine could easily be explained on the basis of their possessing many ideas and documents where were common to the Essene Sect as a whole. One interesting suggestion has been advanced that John had been adopted by the Qumran Sect as a boy, and this would certainly account for his being in the desert at such an early age. We have already seen that some branches of the Essenes eschewed marriage, and to keep up their number adopted other people’s children whilst yet pliable and docile, and regarded them as their kin and moulded them in accordance with their own principles.
As the son of a priest he would have been welcomed by such a Community and probably marked out for a leading role in the Sect. When we meet him he is no longer a member, which may suggest expulsion, or voluntary resignation, perhaps when he received this overwhelming conviction of the need to take his message to the common people. We are told that besides his wearing of only the simplest garments, he ate only honey and locusts, both of which are mentioned in the food laws at the end of the Damascus Document. This again may indicate that the food he was able to eat was strictly limited owing to his purity vows taken in the Community.
Whether this theory be in accordance with the facts or not, it is certain that John the Baptist and his disciples exercised a very considerable influence on Jesus and the Church, and it is equally certain that much of John’s message find its parallels in Qumran teaching.” “The Dead Sea Scrolls” John Allegro. pp 157-159. Penguin Books 1956.
John seems to have developed two new aspects of baptism which continued into the Christian tradition. Neither of these seem to have any antecedents in Jewish practise and both are found within the Early Church of the first century. David Down, the Australian archaeologist, has stated: “First, the Essenes practised immersion as a continuing ritual. As long as ceremonial impurity could be contracted there was a need for repeated ritual ablutions. But John seems to have used it as a total form of purification. Certainly Jesus and the disciples used it as not only as a form of permanent purification, (Gal 3:27), but as a form of initiation into the church (1 Cor.12:13.)
Second, the Essenes, and those who patronised the mikveh, practised this as a personal ritual. But John administered it to others. At least he supervised the ritual, or formally witnessed the act of immersion. Whether he physically immersed the candidate with his own hands is open to question. There is no Biblical or historical evidence to suggest that he lay candidates down backwards as is done by some Christian ministers today. Immersion in a mikveh was practised by bending at the knees and immersing beneath the water, and this was probably the method supervised by John.” “Digging Up The Past” Sept 87.
The Christian church certainly argued the unrepeatability of baptism, and the form of backwards immersing was to emphasise the burial of the candidate into Christ’s death. (Rom 5:1-3).
John Allegro’s belief that John the Baptist was, for some time at least, part of the community at Qumran or with a nearby Essene sect, has the powerful support of Yigael Yadin, who says: “It seems evident that John himself not only knew the Essenes but may also have been a member of the community for a period. He roamed about in the same area – the eastern edge of the Judean desert close to the river Jordan and the Dead Sea – preaching and practising an ascetic mode of life; and the type of baptism he advocated is in keeping with the texts on baptism in some of the Dead Sea scrolls. Archaeological remains associated with baptism were excavated at Qumran.” “The Temple Scroll” by Yigael Yadin. p.240. George Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd. 1985.
A further development of this argument has been presented by Dr William Sanford La Sor, a Presbyterian scholar who writes: “We may ask what was the role of John and other baptisers in Christian tradition? Were they administering the baptism, immersing those who were being baptised? Again the philological evidence is technical and inconclusive. It is possible, perhaps probable, that John did not “administer the sacrament” (to use a church term), but rather witnessed the rite.
Jewish law required ritual immersion in the mikveh to be witnessed, although it is clear that the person immersed him or herself. The Mishnah uses the words tabal “immersed himself” (Mikva’ot 2:1,2) and tabelu “immersed themselves” (Mikva’ot 7:6). (“repent and immerse yourselves” is reflexive in Greek and fits in with 1 Cor 10:2 – Moses obviously did not perform the act of baptising all of Israel in the Red Sea, they immersed themselves – G.K.M.)
“Incidentally, to be a witness at a ritual immersion, it was not necessary to be a rabbi. Accordingly it would not have been necessary for the disciples to be rabbis if they either witnessed or “administered” a ritual immersion (baptism). Thus, we find Philip (most likely one of the Seven), (Acts 6:5) and Ananias of Damascus involved in the baptism of the Ethiopian and Saul, respectively (Acts 8:38, 9:18).
“What lies behind the Christian custom of baptising “in the name of”? According to several references in the New Testament, the new believer was to be baptised “in the name of Jesus Christ” (Acts 2:38), “in the name of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 8:16), or in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit” (Matt 28:19). Paul asks “Were you baptised in the name of Paul?” (1 Cor 1:13).
A possible suggestion is that baptism “in the name of” was originally an indication of the required witness. John’s baptism was commonly referred to as “the baptism op John” (Matt 21:25; Mark 11:36; Luke 7:29; Acts 1:22, 18:25), which could imply that he was the witness rather than the administrator. On the other hand, there is no talmudic basis, so far as I know, for naming the witness to ritual immersion when it is required.
One major difference between Jewish ritual immersion and Christian baptism has been mentioned by a number of scholars who have considered the possible relationship between the two. Jewish ritual immersion is purifying, or to use the technically correct term, purificatory. Christian baptism, on the other hand, is initiating, or initiatory; it is a one-time ritual that initiates the person into the sect (as the early Christians were known).
Initiatory baptism, however, has its parallels in Jewish proselyte baptism. Three things were required of a proselyte to Judaism: circumcision, the offering of a sacrifice and immersion in the mikveh (and of course acceptance of the Torah, the law). After the Roman destruction of the Temple in 70 A.D., the sacrifice was no longer required. While the Church confined its missionary activities to Jews, circumcision was not an issue. When it decided to reach out to gentiles, the requirement of circumcision was abrogated.
This left ritual immersion in the mikveh as the only applicable Jewish requirement of conversion. Ritual immersion (i.e. baptism) became the central Christian initiatory rite.
According to Jewish tradition, a convert “is like a new-born child.” Jesus himself said that “Unless one is born anew, he cannot see the kingdom of God” (John 3:3). How can he be born anew? “Unless he is born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter the kingdom of God” (John 3:5). Paul compares baptism with being baptised into death with Christ and raised with him to “walk in newness of life” (Rom 3-4). The early Church was composed in the beginning exclusively of Jews, and assuredly followed Jewish law and tradition. We can learn much about the early Church by a better understanding of its Jewish background. The Jewish mikva’ot and laws of ritual immersion are but an example.” “Biblical Archaeology Review.” January/February 1987. p52ff
Some scholars have disputed that the baptisms of the Essenes should be identified with Christian baptism, seeing that the Jewish immersions were repeated and Christian baptism was received once only. However the first baptism of a novice initiated him into full membership of the Community (Manual of Discipline 2:25-3:12). The baptisms at Qumran had a more than purely ceremonial significance. Where they were accompanied by penitence and submission to the will of God they symbolised the cleansing of moral impurity and character.
All that we have learnt in the past three decades indicates that John came from an environment similar to that at Qumran, used the same Scriptural texts, observed the same life style, and practised the same mode of baptism in the same local area. John baptised only once, for the remission of sins, administering the rite as either witness or administrator in the tradition of the Community – the total immersion of the candidate.
